Complex Project Management: Historical Background, Problems and Approaches Essay

Managing a project that has cross-cultural team members is a very involving task, which calls for application of appropriate leadership styles and approaches (Arbaugh, 2007, p. 569). The applicability of theories, models and approaches of management in the Belbin Consultancy Project can be deeply elaborated with clarity, to demonstrate the understanding of the topic. Since managing and leading cross-cultural teams in such projects does not just happen, as the monitor and shaper, I comprehensively applied the necessary aspects of leadership and management as I deemed appropriate. Below is a presentation of the report of Belbin Consultancy Project that my team and I, as the monitor and shaper, undertook. Project management             Project management is a comprehensive undertaking by project managers which involves several steps from inception to completion, and which guarantees the success of the project (Klimenko, 2014, p. 13). As I experienced during the Belbin Project execution, these activities have to be carefully organized and precisely planned for execution. Project Processes             During the management of the project, I applied 5 fundamental processes as shown in the appendix 1. The first process was initiation, which involved determining the nature and range of the project (Daft & Lane, 2005, p. 337). All the requirements ranging from analysis, goal setting, current operations review and feasibility were considered at this stage. The second process that we carried out was planning which involved the setting of appropriate time for each activity, considering the costs involved and the resources required. We also did a risk planning activity that was geared towards tackling uncertainties. The third process was executing, which involved following all the activities of the project as outlined during the planning stage. This was geared towards meeting all the set deadlines of the set milestones. The fourth process involved monitoring the progress and controlling the execution, noting of any deviations from the plan and taking the appropriate managerial actions (Stewart and Powell, 2004, p. 37). At this stage, I verified and validated the activities and their execution as per the allocated resources and timelines. It is at this stage that the quality of the activities that different team members were involved in was considered. The last process of the project involved the closing out of the project after its completion (Xie and Zhang, 2013, p. 725). The final product that the team developed was accepted having delivered to the best of our ability. Management Approaches             For effective execution of the processes mentioned above, I applied several management approaches. These approaches assisted in carrying out the processes in a planned manner, towards realizing the requirements. The first approach I utilized was the traditional method, which involved the execution of all the processes in a sequence. In this approach, some processes were recursively extended to support the cycle of development of the project (Collyer & Warren, 2009 p. 359). The second approach was event chain approach, which involved the identification and management of proceedings and the chains of proceedings attached to the project schedule. This approach helped me in managing the negative effects, and allowed for modeling of uncertainties that were foreseeable as was outlined in the project schedule (Symonds, 2014, p. 2). The third approach was scrum methodology, whose goal was to improve the productivity of the team by removing every possible hurdle. The fourth methodology was crystal approach in which I directed the team away from focusing on the processes. It was thus crucial to focus more on the skills of the team members, interactions, communication and people. This way, every member was able to deliver in their allocated part. Organizing and Structuring Teamwork             At this stage, the central focus is given on the capabilities of team members. As defined by Scarnati (2001. P. 5), teamwork is a cooperative procedure that assists normal people to accomplish surprising results. It, therefore, called for effective allocation of tasks on individual members. We generated a commitment oath of the team and developed shared goals. The team focused on providing quality results as opposed to achieving individual personal satisfaction that might have interfered with the achievement of objectives. Similarly, I facilitated and nurtured positive relationships that were cooperative as a way of motivating the team members towards achieving the final goal. The issues of interdependence among the team members were put into consideration (Schneider & Barsoux, 2003, p. 137). The creation of a positive attitude in the members through inspiring examples was thus vital. When experiencing difficulties, team members were enthusiastic to help out their peers, regardless of their backgrounds (Symonds, 2014, p. 2). Whenever deviations resulted from the unwillingness of some members to ask for assistance, a quick meeting was convened to remind them of their interdependence responsibilities. During the allocation of tasks, interpersonal skills were put in consideration a step that allowed for proper allocation of tasks. I encouraged open communication as well as positive feedbacks as a way of improving relationships among team members. This way, the team had an understanding that discussing problems was healthy for their interdependence. Similarly, as an overall manager, I worked hard to ensure that the teams had the appropriate composition, by carefully considering the skills of each member and the kind of personality that each possessed. After careful consideration, the team members were allocated tasks that matched their profile. On the same note, commitment to the processes of the team and accountability were highly emphasized. Respect for every member was exceedingly regarded and especially on the response towards several individuals who took leadership roles (Wateridge, 2001, p. 191). To ensure effective and efficient implementation of the project activities, elect ronic tools were highly utilized and whenever the tools were not enough for use on a particular task, the available tools were shared. This highly facilitated the process of implementation of the project activities. Project Execution             During the project execution, my vital role was to control the process. At this point, practicing MBWA (management by walking around) was necessary. There were some instances where the project activities carried out by the team members veered from the plan. These deviations resulted from the inability of some members to fully comprehend what is expected of them during certain activities. This was so because of the diversified back grounds of the team members, which prevented them from consulting or asking for assistance. It was thus necessary for me to carry out the proper monitoring role, to match the activities with the plan and to assure quality. To do this, I convened several emergence meetings to remind the team members on their roles as team players. During the completion stage when the project was nearing the close out phase, one of the team members got seek and had to fly back home. Because of the limitation of time, the tasks were allocated to some members of the team. It was unfortunate because the delivery time of the added tasks was late for the reason of failure to understand the tasks. This made it necessary for convening an abrupt meeting to brief the affected members on what is expected of them. For this reason, the delivery of the tasks allocated to the ailing member did not go in accordance with the plan. Team Working and Leadership Cross-cultural Teams             During the initiation stage, the team rules as shown in appendix 2, as well as the roles of every member were developed. To facilitate this, discussions on the cultural dissimilarities that were easily perceivable and their effects on behavior of the members and performance were established. This was geared towards creating an open discussion that inspired mutual trust and obligation (Chung et al., 2013 p. 194). After the discussion, the cultural differences that emanated from understanding the background of every team member helped in developing appropriate ways of addressing the issues accordingly. This was done after knowing where these differences emanated from through assessing the situation from individual member’s perspective. This helped in changing the stereo-typed perceptions and improvement on value-based assumptions. To solve some of the cross-cultural issues that arose during implementation of the setout activities, I as the leader worked hard for reconciliation as opposed to compromising. I thus created new ways of perceiving and settling the differences. This encouraged the combining of strengths among the team members as opposed to picking disagreements. Intensive communications, feedbacks and procedures were highly regarded to minimize the risks involved. Changing Roles             The aspect of changing roles was not utilized so as to facilitate the aspect of specialization in tasks. This worked to our disadvantage when one of the team members go sick and had to fly back home. The tasks were allocated to several team members who had almost similar tasks. Because of inadequacy of specialization on the added tasks, the members delivered the tasks late. This prompted me to convene an impromptu meeting to brief the members on their new added tasks. Because of this reason, the delivery of the tasks was out of time plan. Motivation             To motivate the team members, the contributions made by each were highly regarded every time a scheduled meeting was convened as shown in appendix 3. Similarly, the diverse views of different individuals were encouraged and incorporated in the decisions made after a comprehensive discussion (Wateridge, 2001, p. 161). To motivate the team members, I kept reminding them of their capabilities and how appreciated their contributions were. Also, different needs of individual members were identified for easy fulfillment. When members felt that their needs are catered for and their views are incorporated in making decisions pertaining to the execution of the project activities, they delivered to their capability (Wright, 2002, p. 121). To encourage harmony within the team, I encouraged communication among the members (Malinowski, 2011, p. 234). This served as a way of understanding the problems that different members are experiencing at particular instances. After the communication of the problems, the issues were addressed accordingly to the satisfaction of all members. This guaranteed harmony among the members through free and unrestricted interactions, characterized by free flow of thoughts (Seteroff, 2003, p. 43). This free flow of thoughts and effective communication facilitated generation of new ideas pertaining to the implementation of activities of the project (Marc & Picard, 2000, p. 38). To get most out of the team members, the same technique of free flow of information and welcoming the contribution of every team member was utilized. Leadership Roles and Styles             During the implementation of the project, several individuals took up the role of leadership. The members who became leaders were chosen by the majority of the team members. The act of leading further boosted the confidence of the chosen members towards obtaining the set goals (Pearce & Sims, 2000, p. 131). I had been previously chosen as the overall manager of the project from the start to the end, to oversee the implementation of activities. This was a good experience that educated me on how cross-cultural teams operate .In the process, different leadership styles as discussed below were utilized. Transactional Leadership             The first type of leadership that different members who took leadership roles utilized was transactional leadership (Lowe & Gardner, 2011, p. 460). This style operated on the basic ground that because the team members agreed on the leadership of a particular member, they must obey the directions he or she gives. This type of leadership led to clarification of the roles played by every member of the team. Similarly, the members were expected to follow the agreed upon rules failure to which one would be ejected out of the team. Transformational Leadership             In this leadership, the leader inspired and motivated team members to transform the issue at hand from worst to best (Sashhin, 2004, p. 171). The means of motivation are as discussed above with encouraging individual members on their capabilities, free flow of information and effective communication at the top of the list (Ashkanasy & Tse, 2000, p. 223). The inspiration and motivation given by the team leaders were genuine, a situation that facilitated the implementation of the planned activities. Participative Leadership             This kind of leadership entails the involvement of team members in decision-making process (Langton & Robbins, 2007, p. 389). Through this kind of leadership, the understanding of the underlying issues of implementation by individual members was enhanced. They thus became more committed to the activities of implementation (Pearce, 2007, p. 357). Under this leadership, people became more collaborative as opposed to competitive and worked on joint team goals. Situational Leadership             In this type of leadership, the leader applies the best action depending on the array of factors of the situation at hand (Northouse, 2004, p. 78). This type of leadership is as a result of several forces namely; the circumstances, the followers and the leader. This style focused more on the behaviors adopted by the leader under different situations (Parry & Bryman, 2006, p. 456). The leader with the most excellent ability of making better decisions had an upper hand in applying the style. Conclusion             In conclusion, managing the activities of a project is a long process more so when dealing with cross-cultural teams. It calls for the manager to understand the different backgrounds of these members. This is done through the application of several techniques as such as the understanding of the cultural differences, their cause, how to change the perception to a common goal of the team and how to motivate individual members bearing in mind the aspect of different backgrounds. This way, he or she is able to inspire the followers to make the best team under a common goal of implementing the activities of the project successfully. On the leadership issue, it is vital that the leader understands the best type of leadership to apply on the team members (Osborn et al., 2002, p. 811). Recommendations             After carrying out all the activities of the project, it became necessary to develop some recommendations based on the lessons learnt. The following are the recommendations that I would implement if I was to undertake the project again as the monitor. To reduce the risk involved when engaging members from different cultural backgrounds in a team, it is essential to apply a flexible approach of management that allows for effective communication, reporting and actions on the raised issues. To change project processes so as to accommodate cultural differences, establishing good relationships with key members of the team is a must. This is geared towards winning their trust which in turn helps the project execution process smooth. To effectively implement the activities of the project, the manager is obliged to know what motivates the team members into doing good job, their specific skills and know-how and their respective communication styles. The combination of participative leadership and transformational leadership is the best option in a project implementation. This is so because participative leadership involves the members in decision-making process and hence motivating them. On the other hand, transformational leadership involves the leader inspiring and motivating his followers. References Arbaugh, J. (2007). Introduction: Project Management Education: Emerging Tools, Techniques, and Topics. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 6(4), pp.568-569.Ashkanasy, N. M., & Tse, B. (2000). Transformational leadership as management of emotion: A conceptual review. In N. M. Ashkanasy, C. E. J. Hà ¤rtel & W. J. Zerbe (Eds.). Emotions in the workplace: Research, theory, and practice (pp. 221-235) Chung, J., Wai, Y., Lau, D. and Songip, A. (2013). Teamwork – A Success Factor of Knowledge Management for Faculty Development: A Case Study. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, pp.192-195.Collyer, S. and Warren, C. (2009). Project management approaches for dynamic environments. International Journal of Project Management, 27(4), pp.355-364.Daft, R. and Lane, P. (2005). The leadership experience. Mason, Ohio: Thomson/South-Western. Industrial/organizational psychology (pp.235-278). Klimenko, O. (2014). Complex Project Management: Historical Background, Problems and Approaches, 3(3), pp.4-13. Langton, N., & Robbins, S. (2007). Leadership. In N. Langton & S. Robbins. Organizational behavior: Concepts, controversies, applications Toronto: Prentice Hall, (pp.386-426). Lowe, K. B. &, Gardner, W. L. (2001). The years of the leadership quarterly: Contributions and challenges for the futures. Leadership Quarterly, 11(4), 459–514. Malinowski, M. (2011). Essential project management skills. Project Management Journal, p.n/a-n/a. Marc, E. & Picard, D. (2000). Relations communications inter-personnel [Relationships and interpersonal communications]. Paris: Dunod. Northouse, P. (2004). Leadership. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. Osborn, R. N., Hunt, J. G., & Jauch, L. R. (2002). Toward a contextual theory of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(6), 797-837. Parry, K. W., & Bryman, A. (2006). Leadership in organization. In S. T. Clegg, C. Harry, T. B. Lawrence & W. R. Nord. The Sage handbook of organization studies (pp. 447-468). Pearce, C. L. (2007). The future of leadership development: The importance of identity, multilevel approaches, self-leadership, physical fitness, shared leadership, networking, creativity, emotions, spirituality and on-boarding processes. Human Resource Management Review, 17(4), 355-359.Pearce, C. L., & Sims, H. P. (2000). Shared leadership: Toward a multi-level theory of leadership, Advances in Interdisciplinary Studies of Work Teams, 7, 115-139. Sashhin, M. (2004). Transformational leadership approaches: A review and synthesis. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.). p. 171 Scarnati, J. (2001). On becoming a team player. Team Performance Management: An International Journal, 7(1/2), pp.5-10. Schneider, S. and Barsoux, J. (2003). Managing across cultures. Harlow, England: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Seteroff, S. S. (2003). Beyond leadership to followership. Victoria: Trafford. Stewart, B. and Powell, S. (2004). Team building and team working. Team Performance Management: An International Journal, 10(1/2), pp.35-38. Symonds, M. (2014). Managing Cross-cultural Project Teams. Leadershipwatch. [online] Available at: http://blog.parallelprojecttraining.com/project-management-articles/managing-cross-cultural-project-teams/ [Accessed 29 Nov. 2014]. Wateridge, J. (2001). Successful Project Management. International Journal of Project Management, 19(3), p.191. Wojciech Macek, W. (2011). Methodologies of Project Management. Contemporary Economics, 4(4), p.121. Wright, J. (2002). Effective Project Management. International Journal of Project Management, 20(8), p.633. Xie, H. and Zhang, A. (2013). Approaches and Processes of the Project Management. AMR, 790, pp.724-727. Source document

Light in the shadow of jihad: the struggle for truth

IntroductionThe world needs to learn to understand each other’s faith and belief and respect it in every way.  Following the September eleventh tragedy, Christians face the dilemma of comprehending the truths of the tragedy and responding to it in a Christian way. That dilemma is answered through deep study and understanding Islam guided by the bible and prophesies contained in it. America and the world must realize that God fulfills his purpose frequently through disasters.With the tragedy, a lot of essential questions arose: Is terrorism the true focus of Islam? Is god absent in such disasters?As America mourned, some celebrated. It is true that some people may think that they are terrorists but some may think they are freedom fighters. The belief that actions can be justified politically has been going on for years. Politicization of morality has given an opportunity to justify actions politically and one it is done, it could be morally accepted as well (Lyon). Other demo cratic nations believe that the individual is the arbiter of right and wrong. But some like Bin Laden thinks differently.Faith is the basis of morality but at the same time it is the root of relativism in every means to establish one religion. This makes their inconsistencies evident. If moral agnosticism is the absolute of relativism, how come relativism tells us that no one can discern right from wrong?  On the other hand, the attackers have spent their last hours with prostitutes in night clubs. If their absolute is Islam, why spend their last night to satisfy their sexual needs instead of their spiritual needs?Zacharias’ BookRavi suggested in his book, Light in the Shadow of Jihad: The Struggle for Truth, five major questions that prevail in people’s mind after the September 11 Bombing. These questions are: Did the terrorists’ action portray a true Islam belief? What can state and church do in shaping the outlook of people on religion and how does it affec t the culture of the nation?Did the incident illustrate an Islamic tradition or such only undermine the religion of Islam? Were there any known predictions that such phenomenon would actually occur? What is the implication of such incident to the world and to the Future?  Moreover, He implicitly asked how God views the incident (Zacharias). Was God in favor of what happened? Why did He allow such violence take place? These were few of the questions directed to question the inclination God towards the 9/11 Bombing.Osama Bin Laden; A Protagonist or an Antagonist?Discernment begins with intuition. But as everybody knows, may often be wrong. Like for instance, Osama Bin Laden’s intuition has failed him (Zacharias). After 9/11, he deliberately complained about the bloodshed in Afghanistan. The bloodshed has suddenly become too reprehensible for Bin Laden. Intuition is simply not enough bases for discernment. Therefore, reasoning must come to place. But how do we move from intuit ion to reasoning? Relativist has said that reason could not move us to morality and that people are not capable of discerning right from wrong simply because right or wrong does not exist. Morality derived from intuition then become in conflict with morality derived from reasoning (Zacharias).As these conflicts arise, a need to go back to the foundation of morality is in place. The society merely recognizes that need. It is urgent and must be taken into consideration.Bin Laden, has his own way of looking at and discerning of the Islamic belief and tradition. Likewise, he has his own way of interpreting the codes of conduct or the morality included and written in the Quran. If his decision failed him, then logically, somehow his knowledge and interpretation of the Quran may be different from the original message of it.Muslim, Islam, Allah and the 9/11 BombingSeptember 11 terrorists thought or believed that their action is Allah’s will (Zacharias). While other Muslims think it is corrupted Islam. If such difference of belief exists among Muslims, what does other people from other beliefs to believe?Is terrorism a fruit of an Islamic worldview or a fruit of socio economic situation? People then must examine Islam to answer this urgent question. As discussed in the book, Islam is a religion which originated from Muhammed. It was through military invasion that Islam was spread out. After the death of Muhammed without a heir or successor, Islam movement was divided (Zacharias).In this time of division, some readings of Quran were destroyed. Thus, this incident becomes a controversy among critics for they think that textual tampering took place. Four sources of Quran accounts and history after the incident emerged- the Hadith, the Sunna, the Sira, and the Tafsir (Zacharias). But different sects of Islam have different levels of importance to these sources. This is an evidence why Muslims, most of the time, are not unanimated in terms of opinion, actions or met hods within their religion today. In this situation, Muslims rely on abrogation. But in this method, another problem arises. Which Quran readings abrogate other Quran readings? Differences among Muslims arise even more. Some Muslims persecute Christians to the point of killing them. There have been several reports about it. Like 9/11 tragedy is persecution to Christians (Muhammad). It is extreme and unfair.Educators has attempted to have an in-depth study of Islam but has met resistance with Muslim leaders. There is a chance that they are trying to manipulate the minds of other Muslims. What could be derived from Islamic history?There exists a major confusion among Muslims about their religion. This confusion is primarily caused by the division that is still evident today. From this as well, we can safely say that not all Muslims agree to violence (Zacharias). Organizing and restudying of Islam is urgently needed by Muslims.Christianity and the War of the Religious FaithsWhat about in Christianity? Is it not in any way predicted or prophesied by the bible? Throughout history, the prophesies in the bible has come to pass. As for example, in the book of Daniel about Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar had a problem about a statue which has four different parts.   It was a dream that Daniel had to interpret. Daniel explained to Nebuchadnezzar that it concerns kingdoms (Muhammad). The first kingdom would overcome the kingdom before them until it reach the fourth. These came to pass as prophesied. Jesus conquered human history without any political agenda. According to theologians, God is there but his presence is not obvious. This is called â€Å"the hiddenness of God†   (Muhammad). Atheist, on the other hand, thinks that if God would manifest himself, they would believe he exists. Other Christians sometimes wish so too.As Muslims persecute Christians, Christians persecute Muslims as well (Muhammad). After 9/11, Muslims faced everyday the discrimination against the m. Every Muslim is perceived to be a terrorist (Lyon). What does that say about Christianity? What is the difference between Muslims and Christians with this king of discrimination?This desire to see God tells more about us than about God. We turn to God when we have no one or nowhere to turn to and questions him when are needs are not met. This happens because of our tendency to rely on our intellect and the continuous nurturing of our minds with knowledge. Deep inside each of us yearns for rational evidence.  With Christians, faith varies but same beliefs are evident. A true relationship with God is when we begin to relate to him in both our ups and downs. God has a purpose. He intends to have us trust him and submit our lives to him in the midst of tragedy.Religion and the FutureThe world is suffering from lack of critical minds in relation to worldviews (Lyon). We are corrupted with so much information, too many voices. But it will never be enough for people top just listen to them and absorb everything. It is important for people to filter it before accepting it as true.The world should put to use faith as a basis of morality. Intuition and Reasoning is not enough. We should put to use the basis of religion as the solid ground of morality in our society. Religion may vary but it is sure the most solid, even if it may be inconsistent, foundation for morality.Respect for other culture and religion must be evident in every individual for the betterment of humanity. We may live in a democratic society but still discrimination is still evident. We must realize and accept that our religion or faith varies. Respect comes from understanding and learning each others cultures. Learning from the experience and moving on from it is in need. It is a challenge for everyone to understand each other. It is time for us to move on from the tragedy. It is time to move on from the corrupted and discriminating society that we are today. Let us move on and be better.Works Ci ted:Lyon, David. Surveillance after September 11 . Blackwell Publishing Limited , 2003.Muhammad, Elijah. Christianity Versus Islam. Secretarius Memps Publications , 1997.Zacharias, Ravi. Light in the Shadow of Jihad: The Struggle for Truth . Multnomah , 2002.

“Outsiders”: Compare Contrast Movie to Book Essay

My view on things has changed a lot since I read this book. A movie, a death, a church and friendship, â€Å"The Outsiders† has it all. A story of brotherhood, friendship, and of a murder, a boy and his friend are caught in a murder, they have to escape form getting caught by the police, and so they run away, starting their journey of friendship and hardships. After reading the novel and watching the movie I noticed some differences, I’ll start with Ponyboy, in the novel pony boy is slapped by his brother, but in the movie, he is pushed, I think the actors couldn’t fake the slap or wanted to harm the actors, this difference wasn’t very good it took away some of the drama. Another difference is that in the movie it ends shortly after Dally’s death and in the novel a lot happens after that; this was a very bad change to the film, like pony boy breaking the glass was definitely a point that made the novel more enjoyable. One similarity in the book and novel is that in both he cuts his hair and dyes it blonde. Johnny also had some differences in the novel and in the film in the novel Johnny is jumped and has a large scar across his cheek; in the movie it isn’t very noticeable. This difference is good because it would attract a lot of attention instead of the viewer focusing on other things. In the movie and novel he has his jean jacket that he wears throughout much of the movie. There is also Dally still has his outlaw look of his troublemaker self, this was very important the book and movie. Also in the book he robs a drugstore, but in the movie he takes a book and rips it up then scares the cashier then runs away, this was an okay change, it did not make a lot of difference, maybe the director thought it would stir up some more action. Some events also had their differences, in one of the church scenes; Ponyboy and Johnny try to catch a rabbit in the film version, in the novel version there was no bunny catching. The movie might have needed something more, besides the boring ordinary church scenes. This change was good because it added some humor. During the rumble scene in the novel, they use weapons in the fight, but in the movie, it showed no one using a weapon, perhaps the director wanted to depict it as a more of a fair fight, to make the victorious win more enjoyable without the cheating. This change was difficult to decide whether it was good or bad it was a neutral change for me. During the hospital scene where Ponyboy meets with Darry and Sodapop, in the novel it was a very emotional moment, complete with tears, but in the movie, it was just a very brotherly hug it took away the emotion, perhaps the actors could not cry on command. The Outsiders was a book about three brothers fighting to stay together as a family and not go into orphanage. A Story of Brotherhood, about sticking together through good and bad, Ponyboy Curtis and Johnny Cade, two friends that made it through. After reading the book and the movie, this has been a very exiting adventure for me and for many others. Remember to Stay Gold!

Toxic Contributory Factors Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Toxic Contributory Factors - Assignment Example According to the Success Chain (2010), â€Å"at Fannie, CEO Franklin Raines and other executives hid problems in order to get huge pay bonuses. Money was coming in, so no one questioned the faulty lending system. Libertarian activist Fred Smith told CNN that it was a case of â€Å"honorable people acting in ways that don’t appear honorable† — greed being the culprit that twisted their perception of right and wrong. Raines received $20 million in compensation after departing Fannie Mae† (Success Chain, 2010, par. 1). Another toxic organization situation was revealed by Burke & Cooper (n.d.) cited â€Å"Maria Piresferreira was awarded more than Can$500,000 by the courts in response to her complaint of physical and verbal abuse. The manager yelled at her, swore at her, accused her of not doing her job, asked her to get away from him, and pushed her away. Her employer’s human resources department (Bell Mobility) did not support her. The judge ruled tha t companies had to take reasonable action to ensure that employees would not be subjected to physical or verbal abuse or intimidation† (National Post, 2008, FP13 cited by Burke & Cooper, n.d., 21). Impact of Toxic Contributory Factors The discourse presented by Burke & Cooper enumerated financial costs of toxic contributory factors as follows: â€Å"for individuals—increased healthcare costs, job loss, loss of personal reputation, and loss of livelihood; for organizations—loss of reputation, staff turnover, diminished job performance, reduced turnover, and potential legal liabilities; for society—increased healthcare costs, income support for those losing their jobs, rehabilitation costs for those injured at... The assignment "Contributing Factors" addresses the following concerns: what impact did the toxic contributing factors have on the community, city, country, etc.; and what organizational checks and balances were missing. The discourse presented by Burke & Cooper enumerated financial costs of toxic contributory factors as follows: â€Å"for individuals—increased health care costs, job loss, loss of personal reputation, and loss of livelihood; for organizations—loss of reputation, staff turnover, diminished job performance, reduced turnover, and potential legal liabilities; for society—increased health care costs, income support for those losing their jobs, rehabilitation costs for those injured at work, and a lack of trust in institutions†. Further, the pain and the trauma caused by toxic factors inflict psychological harm to individuals. In the case of Frannie Mae, there were clear failure to countercheck the CEO’s activities from internal and external auditing units to immediately discover the alleged cover-up of the dilemma. As indicated by Gordon, â€Å"the regulators alleged an accounting fraud at Washington-based Fannie Mae that included manipulations to reach quarterly earnings targets so that Raines, Howard, Spencer and other company executives could pocket hundreds of millions in bonuses from 1998 to 2004†. In Bell Mobility’s case, there was a lack of performance evaluation and appraisals for managers to reveal the nature of their behavior and performance at work.

The story of stuff Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The story of stuff - Essay Example In order to shock the reader into realizing the severity of the problems, the author has interspersed her discussion with some rather startling facts. For example she rightly says that the Government has failed in its responsibility to provide safety and security for its citizens. She maintains that out of the world’s 100 largest economies, 51 percent are corporations and 49 percent are countries. This fact has been stated by Sarah Anderson and John Cavanagh in their report entitled ‘Top 200: The Rise of the Corporate Global Power’ in which they compared the size and power of international corporate entities to the Governments of nations. What hope can Governments and people then have to save themselves from the caprices of corporations? In fact instances of Government lobbying on the part of corporations and their donations are so common that many people have simply given up thinking in the power of Government to reform society according to idealistic principles. That is why you see a low turnout on any election day. Leonard also maintains that in the last three decades, we have used up as much as one-third of the Earth’s resources (Hawkins, Lovins & Lovins, 4).

Development of Research Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Development of Research Questions - Essay Example fact Open Doors report provided by the Institute of International Education (IIE), recorded an increase of 3% to 690,923 of student enrolment during the 2009/10 academic year. So it is crucial how the courses are introduced so that the international students can follow the curriculum given the two most common challenges they have to face; that of having a grasp over English and the associated stress due to culture shift. And when the students are pursuing a highly technical course like accounting, the learning difficulty multiplies. For it is typically assumed that all students are familiar with the basic concepts of accounting, its core definitions, and main transactions. But the general perception of accounting courses among students is that they are difficult to study, and students are expected to work hard to succeed in these courses. One of the big reasons is the difficulty with English comprehension. For this special group of students, which usually enter on F-1 visa, English i s a second language and it is imperative that they master it in order to understand and grasp complex accounting matters. Typically, these students need to make extra effort to connect what they just learned and what it should mean. As a result, complex accounting material becomes even more complicated for this particular group to do well and succeed in the accounting courses. The anticipated research study will be conducted on various issues and opportunities that this unique group of students experience while taking accounting courses namely coping with English and its impact on academic performance, the consequent stress of being in a new culture and the intervention services that could be extended to them. Therefore the proposed dissertation topic is as follows: â€Å"International students in accounting course in the U.S: Challenges & opportunities†. The impact of foreign students on the educational industry in America could not be ignored both in terms of the financial aspects

Response to Intervention instead of Special Education Screening Research Paper

Response to Intervention instead of Special Education Screening - Research Paper Example Lack of Consistent Measurement/Standards b. Lack of Training on Measurement Tools Associated with RTI c. Difficulty in Using RTI across Large Numbers d. Local vs. National Standards IV. Current Variations of RTI Use a. RTI to Replace Regular SPED Screening b. RTI in Conjunction with SPED screening c. No RTI V. Recommendations for Future Methodology a. More Standardized Criteria for RTI Results b. RTI Use for Entire Population c. Continue SPED Screening d. Implement a Shared Approach Using both Tools/Systems Response to Intervention instead of Special Education Screening I. Introduction Description of RTI Response to Intervention, commonly referred to RTI in the education discipline is a form of academic intervention and a multilayered approach that provides services to students by specifically providing the type of education that suit their level of academic need through the corresponding level of instruction. It is a new model in education used in the United States which specificall y functions as a special education identification method (Harlacher, Nelson Walker & Sanford, 2010, p.30). RTI is composed of different levels of instructional supports within which the students are assigned on the basis of the results gathered from screening and progress monitoring data. There are variations to the structure of RTI model but the most common example is the three-tiered model. Tier 1 is composed of scientifically based curriculum with differentiation in terms of instructions to be able to prevent possible learning difficulties

Just World Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Just World Theory - Essay Example One of the outcomes of this tendency has been a propensity to hold responsible for the blameless fatalities. An immense pact of study recommends that human being are perceptions of rape, aggression and other outlines of assault are tinted by a person's own ways. Though, various issues such as individuality of the sufferer and sexual category participates an essential part in who gets detained for the responsibility in the center of the unlucky situation. The researchers forecasted those members who think in a just world would allocate fatalities more responsible than members who do not think that the world is just. All members were specified for a worldwide conviction in a just world scale and a situation to interpret about a sufferer who was detained whilst running away from a clash at a neighborhood bar. The sufferer, portrayed as either having been detained formerly or having not at all been detained was positioned in prison. One more prisoner afterward raped the sufferer. The mem bers were then given the chance to rate how guilty the sufferer was for the happening. The consequences demonstrated that members whose scores pointed out a superior conviction in a just world dispense more responsibility to the sufferer in spite of of the sufferer's previous arrest documentation. The researchers fulfilled that conviction in a just world is analytic of superior sufferer guilt. However, based on the just world theory entails that one get what they ought to have in life; the researchers conjectured that members considering in a just world would grasp the sufferer guiltier than members who did not. Members were also given a conviction in a just world balance plus a balance of their evaluation of their approach toward the victims of AIDS. The consequences showed that member's scores on the just world extent were absolutely connected with unenthusiastic approaches toward AIDS victims. Therefore, members who sensed that the world was just and reasonable were more probable to charge the individuals for constricting AIDS despite of how they constricted the syndrome. Many researches do in reality sustain the verdict that males are more probable to charge the sufferer of unlucky conditions. Such as the investigation was made in the high school and college students thoughts toward rape. Members were given a rape allegory receipt scale and eleven short rape situations. The researchers found that males held responsible the sufferers more than females did in spite of the situation. In an additional study, members were told two descriptions of a tale about a communication among a woman and a man. Variations were precisely the similar apart from the incredibly end the man raped the woman in one and in the other he anticipated marriage. Together, in both of the circumstances, members analyzed the woman's indistinguishable proceedings as unavoidably leading to the very dissimilar consequences. Studies have revealed that those who judge in a just world might be more probable to think that rape sufferers must have acted seductively that tattered wives must have justified their thrashings, that ill inhabitants must have caused their possessed sickness or that the unfortunate ought to have their assortment. However, the just world th

ICTs in Global Context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

ICTs in Global Context - Essay Example Such applications refer to the government online (E-Government), the introduction of the Electronic Voting System, the expression of the people’s opinion regarding a certain political decision by signing an on-line petition, as well as to the information and publicity developed on the Internet, in the electronic mail and throughout the informatics technologies.† (Annals, 2005 University of Craiova). But many argue that there an increase in the benefits of any country as a result of the spread of capitalism. ICTs have the ability to fast-track any country’s participation in the global politics and decision making policies. ICTs give any government domination over the policies due to extensive financial and technical resources, to facilitate in its global presence, and helping in ggrowth of a new entrepreneurial class with innovative corporate practices. If the FOSS model is applied then any country’s government has control over its ICT infrastructure, in ter ms of security, support and development and cost thereby increasing development and employment means. Also the government has open standards and open formats now, allowing for international co-operation. Theorists have different views about the effect that ICTs have on politics. Hyperglobalists think that due to ICTs political power becomes transferred into the hands of those which do not deserve it. Transformationalists think that ICTs cause the power of the government to become uneven and multilayered as they reconstitute and restructure their power. Skeptics state that ICTs are overstatement that only serves to extend policies and cause unrest in the country as a result of a power upsurge. Critiques argue that ICTs cause privatizations.... The wide spread use of ICTs has changed the world much, whether to our liking or not, is still to decides. Most of it is certainly in our favor. But nothing good in this world comes without a price. ICTs promote globalization which refers to the accelerated worldwide intermeshing of states and the closer integration of economies and cross-border traffic and communication becoming denser. It is also the process whereby individual lives and local communities are affected by economic and cultural forces that operate worldwide. ICTs allow poor states to come edge to edge with the developed countries and promote better communication. It can even give the states a place in the global economic picture. But are most of the benefits good enough to account for all the bad that is brought about by the ICTs. Due to ICTs a different category of ‘information poor’ states is formed. States run after information that is categorized as valuable information and knowledge and beats the oth ers for it at all costs increasing the already deep world-wide unrest. In many places the western structures of knowledge and power and economic superiority is still maintained not allowing the underdeveloped countries to come forward. ICTs are also responsible in an on-going masculine discourse development. ICTs ignore finance problems such as recurrent costs of computer servicing and training and are still intent on supplying rather than the demand side.

Media Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Media Paper - Essay Example Moreover, there was the fear of the nation getting involved in the war that broke in 1931 as Hitler attacked Poland. For these reasons, America tried her best â€Å"to be as unneutral as possible without getting involved† (Viola, 790-793). The United States though, was having its relationship with Japan strained with issues over China and French Indochina. Viola (1998) notes that in November 20, 1941; the last offer of Japan was given to the United States, for her to cut off aid to China and end the embargo. In response, America asked a counteroffer on the 26th of the same month, for Japan to leave the Axis powers and to withdraw from China and the French Indochina. In his speech, Roosevelt mentioned that the final response the Secretary of State received from the Japanese ambassador to the United States implied no threat. Therefore, he described the attack as sudden and deliberate. What the president was trying to tell to the nation in the aforementioned speech was that, the nation tried her best to stay away from the war, that the empire of Japan posed a threat to the nation because of the deliberate bombing of the Pearl Harbor, that America has to do something to protect her people and for the nation to understand and help in the president’s stand. During a tumultuous time like this, the president surely did not need critics but support and encouragement. He needed to tell the people frankly what the state of the nation is and let them see clearly the need to be involved even during a time when no one would like to go to war. Roosevelt ended his speech with an appeal to the Congress to â€Å"declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan on Sunday, December 7th, 1941, a state of war has existed between the United States and the Japanese empire†, plainly and simply. As Schlesinger puts it, Roosevelt â€Å"recognized that to mob ilize public

Texting While Driving Essay Example for Free

Texting While Driving Essay About 41% of teen reported that they had texted or emailed while driving. This is true even though there are horrifying commercials and campaigns aimed at keeping teen drivers’ eyes on the road and hands on the wheel. Also, the bulk of teen deaths are due to motor vehicle crashes. But texting and driving isn’t the only risky business teens are engaging in. About 41.3% of teens said they’re using computers for more than 3 hours daily. About 14.8% of students said that they had been bullied online. Another risk that is that sexually active teens are having more unprotected sex that in the past: around 41% of sexually active teens. The annual survey of 9th through 12th graders examines the unhealthy behaviors of teens over the past 12 months is what is used to gage the leads to unintentional injury, obesity, and unplanned pregnancies. About 13,500 surveys, which were administered at public and private high schools, were examined to determine results. It is sad to see the number of teens partaking in risky behaviors rise even though statistics show how many teens are ruining their lives. Schools are now even showing videos of the consequences of partaking in these behaviors and videos of people that tell how the consequences aren’t worth the short term enjoyment. I want to know the mentality of teens that text while driving because judging by their actions, it seems like they value replying to a text more than their own lives. It’s unbelievable how teens still text and drive even though they know that they could die at any moment. Either teens need to change their ways or parents need to start intervening to save their children from becoming victims to risky behaviors.

The play King Henry IV Essay Example for Free

The play King Henry IV Essay The play King Henry IV revolves around a central plotline spanning a vast period of time encompassing numerous significant events. All of these events, however small, play a key role in the development of the characters as well as the themes within the play. The idea that in coming to power King Henry IV seized the crown, overruling the divine right of kings, is central to the constant theme of corruption and fear which runs throughout the plot. One of the main themes present is the journey from adolescence to maturity. Prince Hal is clearly a wayward character, seemingly dangerously close to losing his right to rule. It would appear that his association with characters such as Falstaff and Poins have nothing but negative implications. This is a key example of an escape from the past into a new future. Hal is attempting to break away from the grasp of Falstaff and his tarnished past into a future of glory, maturity and strong leadership. The idea that in fact past events can have a positive effect is then developed. In a conversation with the King, Warwick states that the Prince but studies his companions like a strange tongue, wherein, to gain the language. This implies that through his knowledge of characters such as Falstaff, and past experience, Prince Hal is in fact gaining a skill that will eventually lead to successful leadership. This past life clearly has an influence on Hal, as it truly demonstrates to him the danger of straying far from the path that one would expect him to take. It seems fair therefore to assume that without this seemingly negative section of his upbringing perhaps he would not later have become a responsible ruler. King Henry IV himself is also running from a past that haunts him and keeps him awake through the night uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. This unrest is partially down to worry concerning Prince Hal, but is also related to the way in which Henry himself seized power. Henrys trouble stems from his own uneasy conscience and his uncertainty about the legitimacy of his rule. Previously he had illegally usurped the throne from Richard II, therefore breaching the divine right of kings, a power bestowed upon the monarch from God. This past troubles him greatly and suppresses his ability to become a great leader. The influence of the past on Henry IV is clearly great; there is no escape from it other than impending death. Therefore one can assume that throughout the play he is simply running from past events rather than focusing on the future, in this case the future of his country. This is therefore an example of how in King Henry IV Part II the past overshadows the present and the future. The role of Northumberland as a leader of rebellion forces is also influenced by decisions made in the past. In the battle of Shrewsbury he decides not to send his military forces, which ultimately leads to the demise of his son, Harry Hotspur. Therefore later in the play when the rebellion forces call upon him once again his refusal to send troops to aid his son introduces an element of guilt as to whether to send reinforcements for the second battle. On one side it seems that due to his initial failure, sending troops would be the only way to regain honour, yet on the other hand it would seem horrific that he would not send troops to save his own son yet would be prepared to do so at this point. Therefore it would seem fair to argue that Northumberlands past decisions overshadow his situation at the present time, showing how that in the play the past has an influence over the present. Falstaff seems to be the only character who can, to a degree, escape the confines of his past. This is mainly due to his nature, and his ability to escape from situations relying on his wit. Throughout his relationship with Doll Tearsheet it would appear that Falstaff had made many false promises, such as marriage and his word to repay his monetary debt to her. However, unlike King Henry he is not haunted by the worry of these events, he instead continues forward allowing them to take their own path, only dodging out of their way when cornered with no chance of escape. He is well aware of his illnesses, yet would rather brush them aside and live his life day by day, he turns disease into commodity and flirts with Doll through a desire which has long outlived performance. In this sense one could argue that in Falstaffs case he lives for the present and the future rather than allowing his past to overshadow his current situation. Therefore, in conclusion it seems that to large degree the argument that the past predominately overshadows the future is valid. In the case of many of the main characters previous decisions and ways of life have a profound impact on the way in which they behave in present situations. The past is clearly a powerful entity and one which plays a key role in defining the plot and decisions made throughout the play, in many cases overshadowing the present and destroying the future.

Leadership competencies and attitudes for success in globalization

Leadership competencies and attitudes for success in globalization Understanding of international interaction is essential for transnational organizations to work effectively in todays global business environment. The level of this understanding is related to possession of international competencies within an organization (Gupta and Govindarajan, 2002). Although the need to develop leaders with adequate competencies has become obvious in recent years (Adler and Bartholomew,1992; Brake et al., 1995; Brake, 1997; Morrison, 2000; This source has not been included in the reference list Bonnstetter, 1999; Suutari, 2002), there is still a significant gap between the international human resource requirements of global strategies and their realization (Adler and Bartholomew, 1992; Engle et al., 2001, Morrison et al., 1999). The process of identifying core competencies usually entails having employees identify core competencies by scanning and assessing company-critical resources, capabilities, and competencies three factors commonly referred to as associated concepts. In the identification process these concepts often become conceptually and empirically merged, something that occurs in strategic management research too, when these associated concepts are defined interchangeably. For example, capabilities and competencies are defined interchangeably by Spanos and Prastacos (2004). Furthermore, diversity and complexity increase in a domestic working environment as business operations become more international. The dynamics, complexity and diversity now characteristic of global environment are diffusing into the domestic environment (Gregersen et al., 1998; Harvey and Buckley, 2002) making increasing demands on management and leadership competencies at all organizational levels. Therefore, increasing under standing of different aspects of globalization and interrelationships of various factors and their changes will help organizations to meet the new challenges brought by globalization, whether their primary operation environment is domestic, international or global. Employees need to learn about culture and cross-cultural communication if they are to work effectively with minorities within their own society or with foreigners encountered at home or abroad (Harris and Moran, 1987, p. 56). The development of global competencies should be based on the global business strategy which determines what kind of global presence is desirable, how many and what types of international or global jobs, projects, task forces, and other types of interactions exist (McCall and Hollenbeck, 2002). Competency development process should start from an analysis of the dynamics of the global business environment and the core competencies, continuing to identifying the profiles of necessary human resources and ending with identification of necessary competencies for specific jobs/functions. Once the specific leader competencies have been identified, the next step is to build bench strength effectively (Brake, 1997; Gregersen et al., 1998). The other assumption is that global leaders have just developed their (general) competencies into a higher (global) level. Bartlett and Ghoshal (1992), and Baruch (2002) argue that there is no such thing as a global manager, or any universal criteria for gl obal managers. Instead, Bartlett and Ghoshal see global management as being a task of a network of specialists including business managers, country managers and functional managers.Yet, they suggest that the top executives are the leaders who manage the complex interactions between the three types of managers, and they must understand the strategic importance of each specialist. The majority of the research on international assignments and positions has been research about expatriates. Some authors have stated explicitly their focus being on global managers/leaders and yet, discuss issues related to the target country such as cultural distance. However, a global leader (or manager) is not necessarily an expatriate, and vice versa. The value of an expatriate assignment as a major developmental experience for those pursuing global career is widely acknowledged. Therefore, and because of scarcity of pure global leadership literature, expatriate literature as well as general leadership literature is relevant also when studying global leaders. Overall, the previous research on global leadership competencies has been dispersed and more synergistic research is needed, together with a more comprehensive theoretical framework, to understand the processes and interactions underlying the development of a global leadership potential (Tiina, 2004). This paper attempts to take a step towards such framework, Secondary data was collected based on the finding of published papers, articles and books perior studeis , the world wide web , existing global leadership and other related literature, these data was reviewd and disscussed to combine findings and suggestions provided in previous literature in a more integrative framework of global leadership competencies and attitudes. The structure of the paper is as follows; The terminology used in the international/global leadership ,literature is reviewed and discussed first and the more integrated framework was described in the chapters that followed. The results identefied 12 competanceie as an assessment and intepret tools to provide an opportunity for experts to reflect on the structure of their company or organisation and to rate the CEO, corporate staff, subsidiary general manager and staff, as well as all employees in general. then indicated whether the competency is essential, use ful or not necessary for the CEO, corporate staff, subsidiary general manager and staff, and all employees, in order for the transformational goal to be realised and to make globalisation work. Litreture review The main outcomes of previous research Recent research supports the idea that there are a limited number of key competencies, over and above the contextual ones, that predict successful behavior in a global environment (Jordan and Cartwright, 1998; Gregersen et al., 1998). As was already mentioned earlier, most of the previous research regarding international competencies has been done on and among expatriates, but much of this research is also relevant when studying global leaders. Harris and Moran (1987, pp. 226-227) review of earlier literature produced nearly 70 dimensions of overseas success of which 21 are given priority as being more important for foreign employment. However, this listing focuses on filling specific expatriate positions, including many practical and contextual items such as adaptability of spouse, promotability, interest in host culture etc. Harris and Moran (1987) focus on cross-cultural interaction and suggest that the main outcomes of cross-cultural training can also be used as selecting criteri a for overseas service. These are empathy, openness, persistence, sensitivity to intercultural factors, respect for others, role flexibility, tolerance of ambiguity, and a two-way communication skill. Srinivas (1995) defines eight components of global mindset which form the base for competencies needed to meet the challenges organizations/individuals face especially when entering a global environment. The components are: curiosity and concern with context, acceptance of complexity and its contradictions, diversity consciousness and sensitivity, seeking opportunity in surprises and uncertainties, faith in organizational processes, focus on continual improvement, extended time perspective, and systems thinking. Rhinesmith (1996) has identified six characteristics of global mindset that lead to global competencies. These are: bigger, broader picture (leading to managing competitiveness), balancing contradictory demands and needs (managing complexity), trust in networked processes, rather than in hierarchical s tructures (managing adaptability), valuing multicultural teamwork and diversity (managing teams), flow with change/seeing change as opportunity (managing uncertainty), and expanding knowledge and skills, being open to surprises (managing learning). In the same line, Rosen (2000) maintains that globally literate leaders possess four global literacies. These include personal, social, business, and cultural literacy. Jordan and Cartwright (1998) maintain that the key to international success lies in a mixture of personality characteristics and managerial competencies. Managerial competencies include relational abilities, cultural sensitivity, linguistic ability, and ability to handle stress. Conner (2000) also identifies a number of skills and capabilities needed by leaders working in a global company, organizing them under six headings: business savvy, ability to use personal influence, global perspective, strong character, ability to motivate people, and entrepreneurial behavior. Mumford et al. (2000) have defined five categories of leadership skills for the changing world. In addition to social judgment skills, social skills, and creative problem solving skills leaders need four types of knowledge: knowledge related to task, business, organization and people. Resources and the process of identifying core competencies usually entails having employees core capabilities by scanning and assessing company resources, capabilities, and competencies ,three factors coming referred to as associated concepts .in the identification process these concepts o ften become conceptually and empirically merged, Something that occurs in strategic management research too. For example, capabilities and competencies are defined by Spanos and Prastcos (2004) and capabilities by Peteraf and Bergen (2003) and Ray et al. (2004), and skill, competence. Other scholars, however, have more usefully distinguished these associated concepts (Branzei and Thornhill, 2006; Savory, 2006; Ljungquist, 2008). Were are the first three items? The fifth item is willingness to exercise these skills. Caligiuri and Di Santo (2001) have approached the desired competencies from a company perspective and identified eight desired developmental dimensions for global leadership programs: ability to transact business in another country, ability to change leadership style based on the situation, knowledge of the companys worldwide business structure, knowledge of professional contacts worldwide, knowledge of international business issues, openness, flexibility, and ethnocentri sm (getting away from it). Spreitzer et al. (1997) focused on finding candidates for those leadership programs, individuals possessing global leadership potential. They have identified 14 dimensions or themes underlying success as an international executive, making a clear distinction between the end-state skills and the ability to learn from experience. Jehad (2009) identified that the core competencies had a significant impact on competitive advantage. Goh (2010) examines how to improve the quality of products and services in the age of globalization reviwing the traditional concepts and the six segma framework, ilustrates how paradigram shifts must affect to achieve real gains in quality. The competencies required for globalisation The above disscussions and further review of relavent litreture is indicated (12) organizational and individual competencies required to make globalisation work have been drawn up (Fig.1). These competencies will be described and developed in this and the following three chapters.these competencies are described into the below table as a finding of such review and also in the dissucssions follows. Attitudes Possesses a global mindset Works as an equal with persons of diverse backgrounds Has a long-term orientation Leadership Facilitates organisational -change Creates learning systems Motivates employees to excellence lnteraction Negotiates and approachesb coflicts in a collaborative mode Manages skillfully the foreign deployment cycle Leads and participates effectively in multicultural teams Culture Understands their own cultural values and assumptions Accurately profiles the organizational and national culture of others Avoids culture mistakes and behaves in an appropriate manner in other countries Fig. 1. Twelve organizational and individual competencies (source: developed by the authors) Studies conducted with companies and individuals have demonstrated that organisations and people can successfully change. Self-initiated change (I want to learn this skill) and professionally facilitated change have both been successful. How change occurs is not well understood, and this report is not intended to answer the question of how organisations and individuals change. Our purpose is to identify the competencies and to suggest strategies for acquiring them. Conceptual model of study: Figure 2 below summarises the 12 external environmental factors, leading to globalisation and the 12 organisational or individual competencies required to succeed in globalisation within the organization. External Forces Economies ofscale New and evolving markets Global sourcing Reduced tariffs/ customs barriers and tax advantages Homogeneous technical standards Loweredglobal transportation costs Increased telecommunication options at reduced costs Trend toward homogeneous demand for products Competition from International Competitors Custome stratey changes fromdomestic-only to global Exchange rate exposure Accelerating rate of technological change GLOBAL organizational competencies Vision Strategy Structure Competencies required to make organization work Attitudes à ¢-  Possesses a global mindset Has the ability to work as equals with persons of diverse background Has a long-term orientation Leadership Facilitates organizational change Creates learning systems Motivates employees to excellence Interaction Negotiates and approaches conflicts in a collaborative mode Manages skillfully the foreign deployment cycle Leads and participates effectively in multicultural teams Culture Understands their own culture values and assumptions Accurately profiles organizational culture and national culture of others Avoids cultural mistakes and behaves in a manner that demonstrates knowledge and respect for the way of conducting business in other countries Fig. 2. Globalisation forces and competencies (source: developed by the authors) Competency 1. Process a global mindset Attitudes are learned and therefore can be unlearned. A global mindset is an attitude: it is not knowledge or information. We learn to be ethnocentric, and we can learn to be global in our perspective. Mindsets Mindset is a word that rarely is used in daily conversation. Websters Encyclopedia Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language, containing over 250 000 entries, does not list it. A smaller Websters dictionary defines mindset as a fixed mental attitude. (Fishers, 2000) excellent book Mindsets: The Role of Culture and Perception in International Relations demonstrates the importance of possessing a global mindset to succeed in the globalisation process. Individuals working in foreign countries share similar experiences in overseas assignments and must not only meet the requirements of their work assignments, but also be able to adjust to unfamiliar attitudes and psychological predispositions. They must function within the expectations of the host culture. In other words, they must work across contrasting mindsets [which] reflect differences in national experience and culture, according to (Fisher, 2000). To date, no comprehensive studies have been conducted on the ways in which contrasting mindsets affect international business relationships and transactions. The education of most managers has provided only hard business skills, such as engineering, finance and strategic planning. Fisher suggests the necessity of providing global managers with additional training in the social sciences, as it is not sufficient to provide a person only with facts and information about unfamiliar cultural practices. Global mindsets Rhinesmith (1996) correctly postulates that a global mindset is a requirement of a global manager who will guide institutions and organizations into the future. He defines a mindset as: a predisposition to see the world in a particular way that sets boundaries and provides explanations for why things are the way they are, while at the same time establishing guidance for ways in which we should behave. In other words, a mindset is a filter through which we look at the world. Rhinesmith states that people with global mindsets approach the world in a number of particular ways. Specifically they: Look for the big picture; that is, they look for multiple possibilities for any event or occurrence-they arent satisfied with the obvious. Understand that the rapidly changing, interdependent world in which we are living is indeed complex. Are process-oriented; in our experience this is the most important dimension, and the one that is most lacking in individuals who are not globally oriented. Consider diversity as a resource and know how to work effectively in multicultural teams. Are not uncomfortable with change or ambiguity. Are open to new experiences. Ethnocentricity vs geocentricity Contrasted to the individual with global mindset is the one who is ethnocentric. Ethnocentricity is defined by the Random House Dictionary as: Belief in the inherent superiority of ones own group and culture; it may be accompanied by feelings of contempt for those others who do not belong; it tends to look down upon those considered as foreign; it views and measures alien cultures and groups in terms of ones own culture. A framework developed to illustrating ethnocentrism (Fig. 3). Not only individuals, but also organisations can be ethnocentric (This source has not been included in the reference list Stephen Weiss and William G. Stripp; 1993). The ethnocentric organizations tend to use home-country personnel in key positions throughout the world, believing they are more intelligent and capable than foreign managers (Harris and Moran, 2003). Attitudes toward themselves and their groups Attitudes toward others See themselves as virtuous and See their standards of value as universal and intrinsically true See themselves as strong Believe outgroup is inferior superior Believe outgroup is weak Distrust outgroups Fig. 3. Framework of ethnocentrism (source: ) In this case, superiority is not equal to nationality, and all groups can contribute to the organisations effectiveness.The culture shock inventory, was designed to measure individual ethnocentrism, or the degree to which individuals perceived their value system to be appropriate for others. Attitude change With globalisation, contact between persons from different cultures increases. What happens when this occurs? Do individuals become more global or more ethnocentric? Following a review of the literature on intergroup contact, This source has not been included in the reference list Amir concluded that the direction of attitude change, following contact with people who are different, depends largely on the conditions under which the contact has taken place He indicates that there are favorable conditions, which reduce prejudice, and unfavorable ones, which may increase prejudice (Kenneth, 1974). The favorable condition of equal status as a factor in reducing prejudice was reported by This source has not been included in the reference list Allport. He pointed out that, for contact between groups to be an element in reducing prejudice, it must be based on equal status contact between majority and minority groups in the pursuit of common goals. Organisations that are globalising must have common goals Competency 2: Works as an equal with persons from diverse backgrounds This section focuses on working women, since the number of women in the workforce worldwide has dramatically increased since 1950. We are fully aware that diversity in the workforces of many countries is also reflected in a significant increase in the numbers of Third and Fourth World immigrants, the physically challenged, senior citizens and others. Generally, the following workforce trends have been identified (Moran and Harris, 2003): By the year 2000, women will comprise just under 50 per cent of the UK workforce. By the year 2000, non-whites will make up 20 per cent of the UK workforce. Greater numbers of immigrants are coming to the United Stares than at any time since World War 1. A greater portion of the US workforce is middle-aged, and the workforce is gradually getting older. The demographics of the workforce in most countries are changing. This is reflected in the development of seminars and workshops on cultural diversity in the United States and other countries. Five years ago these seminars were unheard of, or else, when conducted, they were under the rubric of affirmative action.* What does the note mean? Competency 3. Has a long-term orientation There are many reasons why companies have not been successful in competing in the global marketplace. One of these reasons is shorttermism. Dick Ferry, the president and co-founder of Korn/Ferry, addresses this issue: Corporate America may talk, on an intellectual level, about what itll take to succeed in the twenty-first century, but when it gets right down to decision making, all that matters is the next quarterly earnings report. Thats whats driving much of the system. With that mind-set, everything else becomes secondary to the ability to deliver the next quarterly earnings push-up. Were on a treadmill. Competency 4. Facilitates organisational change This section will cover two main points: what some academics and business people say about organisational change, and (2) how they recommend managing these changes. We present several perspectives, as it is our belief that no one individual has all the answers, strategies or methods to facilitate change. Competency 5. Creates learning systems This source has not been included in the reference list Peter Senge said it best in his book, The Fifth Discipline: The organizations that will truly excel in the future will be the organisations that discover how to tap peoples commitment and capacity to learn at all levels in an organisation. Competency 6. Motivates employees to excellence The pronoun test: An operative word in UK organisations for the past several years is ,empowerment. Our employees are empowered, says an executive from a different Fortune 500 company, this one thriving in turbulent times. Perhaps an important difference between the two organisations may be determined: For six months now Ive been visiting the workplaces of America, administering a simple test. 1 call it the pronoun test. 1 ask front-line workers a few general questions about the company. If the answers 1 get back describe the company in terms like they, or them, 1 know its one kind of company. If the answers are put in terms like we, or us 1 know its a different kind of company. It doesnt much matter whats said about the company. Even a statement like, they aim for high quality here suggests a workplace that hasnt yet made the leap into true high performance. It isnt yet achieving ever higher levels of quality, productivity and service. Only we companies can do this (Rhinesmith, 1993). Competency 7. Negotiates and approaches conflicts in a collaborative mode The material describing this competency is drawn from many excellent sources but primarily from the managing cultural difference: How to negotiate with japans? Managing cultural synergy and developing the global organization (Black et al., 1999) To make globalisation work, we need to negotiate and approach conflicts collaboratively. Skillful international business negotiators know more than, and behave (act) differently from non-skillful negotiators. Competency 8. Manages skillfully the foreign deployment cycle It has been estimated that American corporations and government spend about $50 billion each year in education and training. The goal is to improve the performance of the individual, thus enhancing the operating performance of a company or the government. jay Duffy, manager, employee development, for a division of a large global company, believes training may be a solution if one of the following four situations exists (Hershock, 1993): 1. A gap exists between the skill level and the current position requirement. 2. The tasks of a present position need to be performed differently. 3. The job has changed or will change. 4. Future positions may require different or additional skills. The gap between job requirements and the skill of the employee was demonstrated in research conducted and reported by Kathleen Miller (Conference Board, 1992) among others. Competency 9. Leads and participates effectively in multicultural teams High performance teams, team work, worldwide global product teams and other words expressing similar ideas are commonplace in the management literature today. Stories of teams producing remarkable accomplishments are well known. Well functioning teams can increase productivity and creativity. However, functioning skillfully on a team is a learned skill. The Conference Board addresses the problem: The CEO must be fully committed to globalisation and must actively and persistently drive the globalisation process. Chief executive commitment is more important than international experience and background. It is essential that the CEO understands the issues (e.g. culture, human resources, empowerment) and translates commitment into actions. Words alone will not drive the process. Second, a core team of managers with an international background must be available in the organization before anything can happen. These managers must bring international culture and international experience to energise the globalisation process (Suutari, 2002). The process of building an international team large enough to permeate the entire organisation is long and arduous. It requires years of training, attention to recruiting, career development, and job rotations through foreign assignments. The role of multicultural teams in the globalisation process is well recognised. Competency 10. Understands their own culture, values and assumptions Know thyself Socrates. Global managers from one country have to work and negotiate with their global counterparts regularly. A common requirement is that they must each be able to communicate effectively and work with individuals who have been socialised in a different cultural environment, and whose customs, values, lifestyles, beliefs, management practices and other important aspects of their personal and professional lives are different. A European executive during a personal conversation said, I cant think of any situation in my 25 years of international experience when international business was made easier because people from more than one country were participating. (Fisher, 2000). A global manager must be aware of the many beliefs and values that underlie his or her own countrys business practices, management techniques and strategies. Competency 11. Accurately profiles the organisational culture and national culture of others Corporate culture is the way of life of an organisation the recent studies of many large organizations, they concluded Corporate culture can have a significant impact on a firms long-term economic performance. Corporate culture will probably be an even more important factor in determining the success or failure of firms in the next decade. Corporate cultures that inhibit strong long-term financial performance are not rare; they develop easily, even in firms that are full of reasonable and intelligent people. Although tough to change, corporate cultures can be made more performance-enhancing (Adler, 1992) Competency 12. Avoids cultural mistakes and behaves in a manner that demonstrates knowledge of and respect for other countries Skillful international managers have learned to see the world differently and to understand the way others manage and do business. This implies that there is no single way of doing anything and that no one culture is perfect or complete in all aspects. Successful communication with other cultures means not judging customs, rituals or ways of doing business as ridiculous, or inferior to ones own. A Swedish executive of a large multinational corporation expressed it this way: We Swedes are so content with the quality of our products and the Swedish way, that we forget that 99 per cent of the rest of the world isnt Swedish. (Pritchett, Pound,1992). Implications The major aim of this paper was to review global leadership competency frameworks suggested in previous literature and to build a more integrative competency framework to be used in future research. Some general issues related to global leadership research were discussed first, and the more integrated framework was described in the chapters that followed. Despite the large number of studies carried out on critical success factors for international (in most cases expatriate) assignments there are only very few based on empirical research, attempting to test the validity of different items and the reliability of different measures. Results from previous studies accumulate into a long list of competencies characterized by only minor semantic differences of a much smaller number of key competencies (see also Jordan and Cartwright, 1998). Practically no longitudinal research has been reported that would validate the relevancy of different competencies defined. As a result, there is little agreement among researchers on the definition of global competence, its antecedents or outcomes. From human resource development perspective, this framework may provide the base for planning international training activities where the fundamental questions to be answered is: in what type of competencies development is needed for, knowledge, skills and abilities, or other characteristics? Competencies have been defined with terms describing certain personal traits, behaviors, skills, values, and knowledge, and many existing frameworks are combinations of these. In existing research, different types of dimensions have often been mixed and treated as equals. A certain trait in one framework is replaced with corresponding behavior in another. Generally, selection of relevant competencies has generated much argument since the relevance of competencies is commonly seen to vary with the task and organization involved McBeath (1990), Baruch (2002), Evans et al. (1989). In this paper global leadership competencies are seen as those universal qualities that enable indi

Capital Punishment :: Essays Papers

Capital Punishment The death penalty is the most severe penalty in the United States judicial system. It is administered only for the most brutal of crimes. Three out of every four Americans are in favor of the death penalty. Opponents believe that the death penalty constitutes cruel and unusual punishment. Because the death penalty engenders such fervid debate among interested individuals, politicians often use the controversy to garner public support. There are many pros and cons pertaining to capital punishment. In 1972, the Supreme Court abolished the death penalty because it inflicted cruel and unusual punishment in violation of the Eighth Amendment of the Constitution. The number of people executed and later found to be innocent disturbed the Court. The Court also felt that the death penalty was being unfairly applied to minorities and poor people. In 1976, after the advent of lethal injection and additional laws to protect the innocent, the Supreme Court reversed its decision and reinstated the death penalty. Many of the same arguments that were used to abolish the death penalty are still being asserted today. People favor capital punishment for numerous reasons. First, capital punishment is believed to deter crime. Criminals may think twice before committing crimes, knowing that their actions could cost them their lives. Second, the victims relatives and friends may feel greater relief and closure if the perpetrator pays for the crime with his or her own life. People close to a victim are often upset by the fact that someone who took away a loved one can continue to live and even inflict more pain by being outspoken and unapologetic. Capital punishment can relieve fears that a killer will escape or be granted parole and return to harm someone else. Third, the death penalty saves money. Why should taxpayers support vicious criminals throughout their incarceration? Why should these criminals add to the serious problem of prison overcrowding which forces less serious violators to be released before their full sentences is served? Lastly, rough justice demands that someone who takes a life should not be allowed to live his or her own life. This principle dates back to the Bible, which provides an eye for an eye. The arguments against capital punishment are equally compelling. For one, the death penalty is biased against African Americans. Statistical evidence shows that African Americans are four times more likely to receive the death penalty than Caucasians.

Comparison of Mid-Term Break, The Field Mouse, and On My First Sonne Es

Comparison of Mid-Term Break, The Field Mouse, and On My First Sonne The above poems are written by 3 different people and on reading them they seem to be about very different things. But at heart, they are about death and the pain that appears afterwards. Seamus Heaney's Mid-Term Break is a memory of his four-year-old brother's death. Gillian Clarke's The Field Mouse is about death in a political conflict compared to a death in nature. Finally On My First Sonne by Ben Johnson is about the death of his son and the religious view of the situation. Both Heaney and Johnson's poems are about the death of a close loved one and how it is dealt with emotionally and in reality. On looking at the title of Heaney's poem, you almost immediately assume that is a happy one, possibly about what he spends his holidays doing. This of course is not the case. Unlike the other two poems, you do not know immediately who has died or even if there is a death. Throughout the poem he keeps us guessing what is happening. He gives us a clue and we have to piece it together like a detective putting a jigsaw puzzle together to solve a crime. Also the fact that it is a memory and he is talking about himself as a child shows how badly it would have affected him and his parents emotionally. Through Heaney talks about the reaction of all his family members to his brother's death, Johnson only talks about how his son's death affected him. You can see that since the deceased was his first son, that he is hit emotionally very hard and seems to blame himself, but at the same time consulates himself by thinking that he has gone to a better place. Line 5 'O, could I loose all father now. For why.' seems to indicate that he has lost a... ...connection that the rest of us probably would not. I feel the poem that really explains the situation well is Seamus Heaney's Mid-Term Break as it keeps the person in suspense over who has died, but delivers a shock at the end when we find out who it really is. This really mixes your emotions and unlike the other 2 makes you feel sorry for a death that happened over 20-30 years ago. I also feel it is better because it focuses on the actually death. while Healey does fill in these criteria. Clarke's poem compares the killing of a field mouse to the killings in the Bosnian War. Though this is clever, it does not show the bad things in the Bosnian War as in reality the killing of one field mouse cannot really be literally compared to the massive killings involving the Muslims. The above reasons are why I think overall Seamus Heaney's poem is the best.

Advertisements Essay example -- essays papers

Advertisements Car safety is an issue that concerns people across the Nation. Millions of Americans die each year due to fatal car accidents. The demand for safer automobiles is ever increasing. The Saturn Corporation recognizes this demand and has begun focusing its advertisements on America's need to feel safe. Saturn brings together setting, color, and a main focus to create the image of a safe car company. In one particular Saturn ad, a Saturn worker stands in a room surrounded by crash test dummies. The dummies in the background are stacked in a cluttered way. The piles of test dummies in the are meant to symbolize bodies. Saturn knows that the reader won't see inanimate objects, but actual human beings, because that is what the dummies are meant to portray. The rea...

Lacklustre Castle

When I entered the lacklustre castle , I came upon tangible hundreds of human skin plastered to the wall . The atmosphere was dozed of iniquity as the clock struck midnight and we planned to hunt the treasure located deep inside this isolated castle . † Hey Sam , my instincts had been telling me that this place isn't good for us † George yelled .†Don't be headstrong George ! We will never endeavour such extraordinary places ,† Sam said in his chill voice . † All right , let's begin the journey † Sam ‘s voice was tremblingWe strolled deeper into the castle and through the window . I could see that the sky was full of tumultuous and ominous black clouds that released a sudden shower . The waves rised as great mountains , anger in the form of water , unforgiving and turbulent . My senses believed that these were the first omens of the impending danger . We then walked further in and I was oblivious about the smell of the rotting meat from a corpse hidden under the cushion . We came to a halt in front of a narrow corridor and I was dumbfounded to discover photos of lovely family . Curiosity grew upon us to investigate this . Jane kindled up the candle and surprisingly found some sentences on the wall . According to her , it had said † The treasure has been my people's desire and only a truly determined person will obtain it . However , please do not take this very lightly as you have to face the unbearable challenges . Good luck .† I think the instructions are just fooling us as according to the book , we just need to solve this knotty puzzle † Jane said confidently † Yes , I believe it is a trap † Sam saidSam , behind you !The wall just suddenly came apart and it started falling over Sam and it had smashed him completely and the blood splattered everywhere . I was shouting over the top of my lungs calling for Sam and the wall had completely blocked him and he vanished like the ships passing through the Bermuda Triangle . I knew that the chances were going slimmer . All the buildings started collapsing and Jane and I both fell to the ground and the boulders had blighted the shelter and we could feel the rough waves on us . Jane was trying to stand on the unbalanced surface but † Jane , watch it !† Sam screamed Two enormous rocks had trapped and the chances to rescue her were decreasing . I was conscious about the scorching heat from the fire that had spread like scuttling mice over the carpet . I used my endless effort to push the rocks over her but was ineffective . † Jane , just leave me and tell mum and dad that I love them so much † she muttered softlyHer words splintered inside me causing more pain than a cancer .She inhaled her last precious breathe and stopped breathing . I sank to my knees and my gasping wails had echoed the ruined castle . Raw tears started falling across my cheeks as I placed a kiss on her delicate forehead . After all these fruitful reminiscence , my beloved sister was gone from this world . I believed it is destiny that separates between us . Two fled, one survived .

Health Care Essay

Under indemnity insurance, the insurers guarantee payment to any licensed health care provider for all covered services. In recent years, fee-for-service indemnity plans also have grown more similar to man- aged care plans. Traditionally, fee-for-service indemnity plans gave individuals an unrestricted choice of licensed health care professionals. Care providers were free to determine which services were appropriate based on their professional judgment and were reimbursed for all the care they delivered. Today, nearly all fee-for-service plans have adopted some form of the utilization- management strategies formerly associated with managed care, such as preauthorization for hospitalization or referral to specialists. In my opinion the indemnity design will not be around in the next thirty years it is losing favor with employers. HMOs are the most tightly closed of all managed care systems. HMOs typically provide no coverage for out-of-plan services and require health care providers to share the financial risk for the amount of services provided. Data have shown that, at an aggregate level, premiums are lower n communities with a higher penetration of HMO plans and more intense competition among health plans (Stein, 1997). Restricted provider networks and a strong reliance on primary care physicians have been major forces allowing HMOs to keep health care premiums below those of other plans. However, the tradeoff between low cost and limited provider choice has been unacceptable to ma ny consumers, as evidenced by the recent trend toward looser and more expensive forms of managed care, such as PPOs and POS plans (Sisk, Gorman, Reisinger, 1996, Stroul, 1996). This trend is likely to raise premium levels and individual copayments and deductibles in the future. Because of the rising of premiums I predict that within the next thirty years HMOs will slowly fade away. In the mid-80s, legislation allowing insurers to contract selectively with different providers at different reimbursement rates provided a starting ground for the development of preferred provider organizations (PPOs) (Gabel &Ermann 1985). Generally, the term PPO refers to a third-party payer system that contracts certain providers for patient services on a discounted fee-for-service basis. Patients are encouraged to select these â€Å"preferred providers† with economic incentives including broader coverage, and in-network providers gain a larger patient base in return for their discounted services (Gabel & Ermann 1985). Unlike health maintenance organization (HMO) coverage, PPO patients retain the ability to go out-of-network for care. Although patients are responsible for most of the costs in such situations, there is usually a yearly limit on out-of-pocket payments that allows patients who experience severe chronic conditions to access long-term out-of-network specialty care without prohibitive costs. PPOs have made a huge leap in the past two decades as a model for health insurance (Sengupta & Kreie 2011): In 1988, PPOs represented 11 percent of employer-provided health care; by 2005, 85 percent of large employers offered at least one PPO option (Hirth, Grazier, Chernew, & Okeke, 2007). PPO will be around for the next thirty years because it allows PPO patients to retain the ability to go out-of-network for care. Very long paragraph here 2. Debate whether or not private health insurance violates the standard principles of insurance. Don’t start at bottom of page. Start at top of next page PHI began with coverage principally for hospital and physicians’ services. As political debates in the United States continue regarding health insurance, there has been considerable argument and criticism about the overhead generated by the PHI mechanism (Woolhandler & Himmelstein, 1991). From1960 to 2000, the total overhead costs of PHI averaged about 12 percent of premiums, ranging from about 9 to 16 percent. This total includes administrative costs, taxes, profits and other nonbenefit expenses (Lemieux, 2005). The full cost of PHI administration to Americans including insurer’s administrative cost, net additions to reserves, rate credits and policyholder dividends, premium taxes, and carrier’s profits or losses is estimated to be about 15 percent of total national health expenditures. None of this including the formidable â€Å"hidden† costs to providers for filing claims, collecting data on quality of care, and submitting various financial reports to insurers. Private health insurance is made up of the three principal entities, which is commercial carriers, the Blues, and HMOs plus self- funded plans. The important of PHI as a source of financing for personal health care expenditures has increased slowly, but steadily (Williams & Torrens, 2010). Although there is no denying that some government health insurance programs such as Medicare deliver benefits at far less administrative cost per dollar of reimbursement than the PHI industry, health insurance by itself is not always a profitable business for insurers. This is particularly true at the high end of the market, where self-funded administrative-services-only customers generate relatively narrow profit margins for most group insurers. Indeed, the health insurance industry suffered a net underwriting loss in many years since 1976. Health insurance is beneficial for many insurers because it servers as a vehicle for selling other, more profitable products (such as insurance) and because health insurance premiums generate revenues via investment income (Whitted, 2001). A number of health insurance entities (including commercial carriers and the blue) offer insurance coverage for individuals and their families (pPauly & Percy, 2000). Some f the nation’s largest commercial accident and health insurers sell few or no individuals policies. Ordinary individual policies for basic medical (hospital and the physician coverage are extraordinarily expensive. This is because of adverse selection: insurers assume that the individual knows something that the insurance plan doesn’t future health needs. Therefore, the insurer adds on premium can easily reach $5,000 per year, even for HMO plans with extensive cost-sharing provisions. In addition, underwriting guidelines for individuals policies have become increasingly stringent; so many people who might wish to purchase coverage are not able to do so (Saver & Doescher, 2000). . Analyze the evolution of the promotion of health and disease prevention in the U. S. and identify the point at which a clear shift in the thinking in the dominant culture occurred residing in the greatest impact on the health care insurance system in the United States. Organized public health activities in the United States began in local seaport communities and only gradually expanded to state and federal government agencies. The Constitution of the United States reserves to the state all functions such as health not specifically earmarked to the federal government. For most of our country’s history, public health was an activity that was primarily carried out by a local or state governmental agency, and it was only after World War II that it was received as necessary or appropriate to have a federal cabinet-level Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. This development would suggest that our country views public health activities and perhaps health activities in general as a local and state matter; federal government involvement developed mostly after World War I, and mostly because of the abundance of federal tax revenues to be redistributed to states and local governments. The continuing efforts to reduce the size and scope of the federal government and to return basic functions and funds to local and state government in recent years may be seen as a continuation of this general idea (Williams & Torrens, 2010). According to (Williams &Torrens, 2010), organized public health activities in the United States began with the quarantine and isolation of potential disease carriers, moved on to the improvement of sanitation in the environment, then went on to focus on immunization of children and control of individuals with contagious infectious disease. Almost all the activities focused on acute infectious diseases, regardless of their origins. This has given rise to an unofficial and generally unspoken agreement that the primary mission of organized public health efforts in the United States should be toward the prevention and control of acute illness rather than chronic disease. Organized public health efforts in the United States have focused on out breaks of illness such as diphtheria and polio because of the suddenness and the severity of any outbreaks of this illness. The much more serious and public health problems of the United States are no longer-term degenerative conditions such as heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Because of the unfortunate political controversies of the 1930’s around a possible national health insurance program, it would have to be admitted that there has been a relatively guarded relationship between the private medical sector and organized public health agencies throughout the country. As long as the organized public health agencies kept to the more traditional public health role of sanitation, immunizations, and infectious diseases control, their activities were generally supported by the private sector. However, whenever the public health sector became more active in the provision of general health services or in the governance or planning facilities and personnel in the private sector, considerable opposition arose. As a result of this opposition, organized public health agencies have been rather cautious about expanding their efforts beyond the boundaries of what were perceived as â€Å"tradition† public health activities (Williams & Torrens, 2010). It is assumed that public health must protect the interest of the public in obtaining access to appropriate health services of high quality, but that has not been an accept role for organized public health in the United States until now. References Gabel J, & Ermann D. (1985). Preferred provider organizations: performance, problems, and promise. Health Aff (Millwood). 1985; 4(1): 24-40. Hirth RA, Grazier KL, Chernew ME, Okeke EN. Insurers’ competitive strategy and enrollment in newly offered preferred provider organizations (PPOs). Inquiry. 2007; 44(4): 400-411. Lemieux, jJ. (2005). Perspective: Administrative cost of private health insurance plans. Washington, DC: America’s Health Plans. Pauly, M. V. , & Percy, A M. (2000). Cost and performance: A comparison of the individual and the group health insurance markets. Journal of the health politics policy and law, 25,9-26 Saver, B. G. , & Doescher, M. P. (2000). To buy, or not to buy: Factors associated with the purchase of non- group private health insurance. Medical Care, 38, 141-151. Sengupta B, & Kreier RE. (2011) A dynamic model of health plan choice from a real options perspective. Atlantic Econ J. 2011; 39(4): 401-419. Sisk, J. E. , Gorman, S. A. , & Reisinger, A. L. , List all authors here etal(1996). EvaluationofMedicaidmanagedcare: Satisfaction, accessanduse. ?Journal of the American Medical Association (1996) 276:50–55. Stein, R. E. K. , ed. Health care for children: What’s right, what’s wrong, what’s next. New York: United Hospital Fund, 1997. Stroll, B. , ed. (Year) Children’s mental health: Creating systems of care in a changing society. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company, 1996. Whitted, G. (2001). In S. J. Williams & P. J. Torrens (Eds. ), Introduction to health services (6th ed. ). Albany, NY, Delmar. Williams, S. J. , Torrens, P. R. , (2010). Introduction t health services (7th ed. ). Albany, NY, Delmar. Woodhandler, S. , & Himmelstein, D. (1991). The deteriorating administrative efficiency of the U. S. health care system. New England Journal of Medicine, 324(18), 1253-1258.